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The second major consistency approach is Osgood and Tannenbaum's congruity theory (Osgood and Tannenbaum, 1955). Its fundamental axiom is that the individual tends to restore cognitive balance when two cognitions are in disagreement through a proportional change in each cognition. Several important variables constitute this principle, namely, the existing attitude toward the goal object, the existing attitude toward the source of the message about the goal object, and the evaluative nature of the assertion between source and goal object. The congruity model deals specifically with the problem of direction of attitude change toward both the source and the goal object. A great part of the theory that underlies the congruity principle grew out of Osgood's work concerning the meaning of concepts and the measurement of meaning by use of the semantic differential scales (Osgood, 1952).
The basic idea of the congruity principle is quite similar to that of Heider's balance theory and Newcomb's symmetry. Osgood and Tannenbaum assumed that "judgmental frames of reference tend toward maximal simplicity." Thus, since extreme "black-and white," "all-or-nothing" judgments are simpler than refined ones, valuations tend to move toward extremes, or there is a continuing pressure toward polarization. Together with the notion of maximization of simplicity is the assumption of identity as being less complex than the discrimination of fine differences (Osgood and Tannenbaum, 1955). Essentially, the congruity principle states that when two or more attitude objects (a communication source and a goal object) are linked by an assertion, there is a tendency for the evaluation of one or both of the objects to change so that the evaluations of the two objects are more similar (Markin, 1974).
Given these assumptions, congruity theory holds that when change in evaluation or attitude occurs it always occurs in the direction of increased congruity with the prevailing frame of reference. The paradigm of congruity is that of an individual who is confronted with an assertion regarding a particular matter about which he believes and feels in a certain way, made by a person toward whom he also has some attitude. All assertions are classified as either associative (or positive) or disassociative (or negative) and any assertion by the source relates the source and the concept held by the individual. If the individual was favorably disposed toward the source and the concept prior to the assertion by the source, and the assertion is favorable, then there is no incongruity. If the same conditions obtain with the exception that now the assertion by the source is not favorable toward the concept, then incongruity is said to prevail (Venkatesan, 1972). Given that Bush is evaluated positively and freedom of the press also positively, and given that Bush (+) comes out in favor of freedom of the press (+), congruity is said to exist. But given that the Daily Worker is evaluated negatively, and given that the Daily Worker (-) comes out in favor of freedom of the press (+), incongruity is said to exist.
Incongruity is said to exist when the attitudes toward the source and the object are similar and the assertion is negative, or when they are dissimilar and the assertion is positive. In comparison, unbalanced states are defined as having either one or all negative relations. The state of incongruity generates a pressure for change in the attitudes held toward the source and/or the concept, and the changed attitudes are expected to lead to a congruous situation. Thus, the congruity theory attempts to specify precisely the direction of change and to indicate whether the change will be with respect to the source or with regard to the concept or object, since assertion is already made and it can only be positive or negative.
Congruity theory is integrally involved with a measurement technique proposed by Osgood et al. (1957) and known as the semantic differential, the first such close relationship between a theory and a scaling technique. One important component of the semantic differential is the evaluative dimension. Objects are evaluated on a seven-point scale, one pole representing "good" and the other "bad." The theory proposes that attitudes tend toward simplicity - that is, they tend to lie at the extremes of the good-bad dimension. A second proposition states that when two objects that are rated differently become related, they are subsequently given ratings more nearly alike (Suedfeld, 1971). Thus if Mr. X, who dislikes President Bush (rating of -3 on the evaluative dimension) and likes the idea of withdrawing American troops from Korea (+3), reads that President Bush advocates troop withdrawal, congruity theory would predict that Mr. X's rating of Bush would move from -3 toward the positive end of the scale and his ratings of troop withdrawal would move down from +3 toward the negative end. The relation between Bush and troop withdrawal is associative, or positive. Pressure toward congruity is a function of the polarity of the original scale values. In all cases of incongruity, the more polarized object (that is, the one closer to +3/-3) will change less than the other. There is an "assertion constant," calculated ad hoc from data (Osgood and Tannenbaum, 1955), which is applied to rating results to allow for the fact that attitude toward the source of an assertion changes less than that toward the object of the assertion. In other words, if President Bush (-3) endorses a troop withdrawal (+3), the rating of the Bush will improve less than the rating of withdrawal will deteriorate. Osgood and Tannenbaum's use of the seven-point semantic differential eliminates one objection to balance theory, the oversimplified positive vs. negative categories of affective relations.
Congruity theory has a great advantage over the earlier attempts in its precision. Osgood and Tannenbaum have formulated the principle of congruity in quantitative terms allowing for precise predictions regarding the extent and direction of attitude change. While balance theory allows merely a dichotomy of attitudes, either positive or negative, the principle of congruity allows refined measurements using the method of the semantic differential. Moreover, while it is not clear from Heider's statement of balance in just what direction changes will occur when an unbalanced state exists, such predictions can be made on the basis of the congruity principle.
