Gender in the Workplace
Bias against women in the workplace has been shown through many studies addressing a wide range of topics. Many of the disparities between males and females in the organization are due to job segregation, or the tendency for males and females to work in different occupations. "The average woman is in a job 86 percent female, and the average man is in a job 8 percent female" (Tomaskovic-Devey & Skaags, 2002 p. 112). Research has shown that the more typically female a job, the lower the pay (Marini 1989). Female typical jobs also have less on-the-job training (Farcas et al 1991), fewer benefits (Perman & Stevens 1989) and fewer promotion opportunities (Steinberg et al 1990).
Another barrier to women's progress is evaluation. Women are assessed on higher standards than are men (Cannings & Montmarquette 1991). It is shown that only women who are very high performers will progress to higher levels. While women must rely on merits, skills and abilities, men can rely on assets such as an informal network to progress (Cannings & Montmarquette 1991).
Women are underrepresented in the ranks of high executives in all types of occupations and corporations throughout the United States. Catalyst (2001) reported that in 2000, there were only two female CEOs in the Fortune 500 companies and only six in the Fortune 1000. In the advertising industry, while women accounted for 56 percent of the industry in 1995, they accounted for only 17 percent of executives making $200,000 or more (Elliot 1997).
Wage discrimination is another factor that women encounter in the workplace. In 2002, women earned 78 cents for every dollar earned by men. In the advertising industry, wage discrimination exists across all levels and most positions through the agency, with an average across positions of women earning $0.86 for every dollar made by men. The greatest difference is seen in agencies with over $15 million in gross income, where women make on average $0.81 for every dollar made by men (Endicott 2002).