Expectation Violation
Expectation-violation theory predicts that people who violate expectancies will be evaluated more extremely than those who do not (Kernahan, Bartholow and Bettencourt 2000). Because stereotypes of success in the workplace have traditionally been associated with male gender norms, females wishing to succeed in this domain are often in violation of existing gender expectations. "Aversive genderism," occurs when a female must exhibit a male-dominant trait, such as an assertive communication style, to show competence, yet she is then judged negatively for acting in a gender inappropriate manner (Juodvalkis et al 2003).
There are several factors that may influence the effect of social categorization on women in the workplace. The structural perspective suggests that the mere number of men and women in a group can affect the group's interaction patterns. Even "tilted" groups (those with 15-35% minority representation) can cause this skewness toward the dominant group (Karakowsky and Siegel 1999). Since creative departments are dominated by males, it may follow that interaction patters, social norms and even recruitment practices may be affected by the current gender makeup of the department. Research on social norms has found that individuals look to situational and societal norms to determine the appropriate way to act in a given situation (Crandall, Eshleman and O'Brien 2002). This means that if there is a normative level of bias against females within a department, members of the department may be able to detect and perpetuate this bias.
Another factor which may be related to bias against females is ambiguity. Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs and Tankins (2004) assert that "bias seems to flourish in situations in which there is ambiguity about performance quality and cognitive distortion can easily occur" (p. 416). In the absence of specific information about a female's superior abilities, people often assume that females are less qualified for positions typically held by males (Heilman and Blader 2001; Heilman and Haynes 2005; Heilman, Rivero and Brett 1991). This bias occurs because stereotypes about a male-dominated position are incongruent with stereotypes about the qualifications of females, leading to derogation of the female's abilities (Heilman and Blader 2001; Heilman and Haynes 2005). Ambiguity can occur in the absence of a tangible work product, when the relative contribution to a product is difficult to assess, or when the merit of the work product is difficult to assess (Heilman and Haynes 2005).
Team work is an area where ambiguity can trigger the assumption that females contribute less to a successful product. When females work in teams with males and produce a joint product, the relative contribution of each team member must often be inferred, which can lead to the inference that female team members contributed less to the success of a male sex-typed task (Heilman and Haynes 2005). Heilman and Haynes (2005) found that "in at least 74 out of 100 (a minimum of 24% above chance) comparisons, men would be evaluated more favorably than women for their involvement in precisely the same excellent joint [team] outcome, unless constrained otherwise" (p. 915). Further, "the average man was frequently evaluated at or above the 85 th percentile of the female distribution" (Heilman and Haynes 2005, p. 915). Within the creative department, teamwork is one possible situation where ambiguity about relative performance can lead to more attribution of success for males than for females. Because creatives work in two-person teams (an art director and a copywriter), there is an opportunity for males to receive more credit for success on a joint product.
In summary, the proportion of males in the creative department could have an impact on the group norms within the department. With a greater percentage of males, there is an increased likelihood that this will be seen as a norm within the department. The ambiguity associated with team work could lead to the attribution of female's successful joint outcomes to their male counterparts. Further, social norms brought on by the overrepresentation of males may impact the overall atmosphere of the creative department, causing a motivated bias in favor of males' work.